Focus on: Uranium, the World's Most Powerful Metal

In light of news that the China National Nuclear Corporation has begun construction on China's largest uranium mining project – Ordos, in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region – we profile this hugely important and controversial radioactive element.

What is uranium, and how is it mined?

Uranium is a radioactive, silvery-white, metallic chemical element. It's the heaviest naturally occurring element, and is found in low concentrations in soil, rock, water, and even in small amounts in our bodies. 

The extraction, processing, and use of uranium are subject to strict international regulations, due to its potential for weaponisation and serious environmental concerns. 

Open-pit and underground mining operations extract uranium ore, which undergoes crushing and grinding before chemical processing to separate the uranium from other minerals. 

The resulting uranium oxide, often referred to as yellowcake, is further refined for use in nuclear fuel production.

Another mining technique is In-situ leaching, which involves injecting a solution into the ground to dissolve the uranium, which is then pumped to the surface for processing.

What are the industrial uses of uranium?

Primarily, the nuclear power sector, where it is a fuel for reactors generating electricity.

Beyond this, uranium has military uses, for nuclear-powered vessels and in the production of nuclear weapons, though the latter is strictly controlled by international treaties. 

In medicine, uranium derivatives are used in the production of radioisotopes for diagnostic imaging and cancer treatments.

The element also plays a role in scientific research, particularly in nuclear physics and materials science. 

Depleted uranium, a by-product of uranium enrichment, is used in radiation shielding and as a component in high-density alloys used in certain industrial and military applications.

In the aerospace industry, uranium compounds have been explored for use in high-temperature ceramics and specialised coatings. 

The element's fluorescent properties also make it useful in some lighting applications and in the production of coloured glass.

Which are the top uranium-producing countries?

Kazakhstan has emerged as the world's leading uranium producer, accounting for a substantial portion of global output. The country's in-situ leaching operations have contributed to its prominence in the market.

Canada and Australia are also major players. Canada's high-grade deposits in the Athabasca Basin have long been a source of uranium for the global market. Australia, with its extensive reserves, maintains a prominent position in uranium production, despite domestic policies that have at times limited mining activities.

Namibia and Niger are notable African uranium producers. Namibia's open-pit mines contribute to its status as a key supplier, while Niger's uranium industry plays a crucial role in its economy.

Russia is another significant uranium producer, with operations that support both domestic nuclear power needs and export markets. Uzbekistan has also established itself as a uranium producer of note, utilising in-situ leaching methods.

China, while primarily focused on meeting its domestic nuclear fuel requirements, has increased its uranium production in recent years. The US, once a leading uranium producer, has seen its uranium output decline but retains the capacity for increased production.

Who are the leading uranium mining companies?

Kazatomprom, Kazakhstan's state-owned nuclear company, holds a prominent position in the global market, leveraging the country's extensive uranium reserves.

Cameco Corporation, a Canadian firm, is a major uranium producer with operations in Canada and Kazakhstan. The company's assets include the McArthur River mine, known for its high-grade ore.

Rio Tinto, an Anglo-Australian mining conglomerate, maintains uranium operations, notably through its stake in the Rössing mine in Namibia.

Russia's state atomic energy corporation, Rosatom, controls significant uranium production through its mining arm, Uranium One, with operations both domestically and internationally.

China General Nuclear Power Group (CGN) and China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) are expanding their uranium mining portfolios, reflecting China's growing nuclear energy ambitions.

BHP, another Australian mining giant, has uranium mining interests, including the Olympic Dam operation in South Australia.

What regulations govern uranium mining?

International regulations surrounding uranium mining are complex and multilayered, involving various global organisations and national governments. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) plays a central role in establishing safety standards and guidelines for the nuclear industry, including uranium mining. These standards cover radiation protection, environmental safeguards, and waste management.

The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) impacts uranium mining by requiring signatories to report their uranium production and exports to the IAEA. This measure aims to prevent the diversion of uranium for weapons production.

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development's Nuclear Energy Agency (OECD-NEA) provides a forum for member countries to collaborate on technical and economic aspects of nuclear energy, including uranium mining practices.

Many countries also have domestic regulations that align with or exceed international standards. These often include requirements for environmental impact assessments, radiation safety protocols, and mine closure plans.

The uranium mining industry is also subject to international trade regulations. The Nuclear Suppliers Group, comprising countries involved in nuclear trade, sets guidelines for the export of nuclear materials and technology.